Review on Phase Change Heat Transfer Based High Efficiency Composite Thermal Control Technology for Power Battery

doi:10.3901/JME.2025.04.176

Abstract

Abstract: The rapidly increasing energy density of lithium-ion power battery solves the “range anxiety” of electric vehicles effectively, meanwhile, it puts forward more stringent requirements on the heat dissipation capacity of battery thermal management system. The thermal management system with liquid cooling plate at the bottom of the battery pack has been widely used by various automobile manufacturers due to its advantages in higher heat dissipation, reliability, longer life and lower cost. However, the uneven distribution of battery surface temperature makes it difficult to improve the cooling performance of liquid cooling plate. The phase change thermal control device is the key to realize the efficient thermal management of power battery due to its excellent heat transfer performance. As a result, composite thermal control technology, consisted by phase change thermal control device and liquid cooling plate, has become an important development direction and hot spot in the field of efficient heat dissipation of power battery. This review introduces the principle and process of thermal runaway of lithium-ion power battery, summarizing the progress and pointing out the existing problems of heat dissipation technology of power battery, and analyses and outline the technical characteristics of phase change thermal control device of power battery. Furthermore, and scientific prediction and prospect are suggested.

Key words: electric vehicle, power battery, phase change thermal control device, ultrathin vapor chamber, composite thermal control technology

CLC Number:

TK124

TANG Yong, ZHAO Wei, YIN Shubin, YUAN Xuepeng, YUAN Wei, ZHANG Shiwei. Review on Phase Change Heat Transfer Based High Efficiency Composite Thermal Control Technology for Power Battery[J]. Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2025, 61(4): 176-194.

References

[1] APT J，PETERSON S B，WHITACRE J F. 7714 Battery vehicles reduce CO₂emissions[J]. Science，2011，333(6044):823.
[2] KANE M. Plug-in electric car sales visualized from 2011 to 2015[EB/OL]. [2016-04-02]. https://insideevs.com/news/329358/plug-in-electric-car-sales-visualized-from-2011-to-2015/.
[3] KANE M. Global Plug-In Car Sales November 2021:massive record over 720000[EB/OL]. [2022-01-03]. https://insideevs.com/news/558357/global-plugin-car-sales-november2021/.
[4] ZENG X，LI M，ABD EL-HADY D et al. Commercialization of lithium battery technologies for electric vehicles[J]. Advanced Energy Materials，2019，9(27):1-25.
[5] NITTA N，WU F，LEE J T et al. Li-ion battery materials:Present and future[J]. Materials Today，2015，18(5):252-264.
[6] SCHMUCH R，WAGNER R，HÖRPEL G，et al. Performance and cost of materials for lithium-based rechargeable automotive batteries[J]. Nature Energy，2018，3(4):267-278.
[7] FENG X，OUYANG M，LIU X，et al. Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles:A review[J]. Energy Storage Materials，2018，10(May 2017):246-267.
[8] ZHANG N，LI J，LI H，et al. Structural，electrochemical，and thermal properties of nickel-rich LiNi_xMn_y Co_z O₂ materials[J]. Chemistry of Materials，2018，30(24):8852-8860.
[9] WU W，WANG S，WU W，et al. A critical review of battery thermal performance and liquid based battery thermal management[J]. Energy Conversion and Management，2019，182:262-281.
[10] CHOI J W，AURBACH D. Promise and reality of post-lithium-ion batteries with high energy densities[J]. Nature Reviews Materials，2016，1(4):1-16.
[11] MA L，NIE M，XIA J，et al. A systematic study on the reactivity of different grades of charged Li[Ni_xMn_yCo_z] O₂ with electrolyte at elevated temperatures using accelerating rate calorimetry[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2016，327:145-150.
[12] 电动汽车起火事件频发根源问题没有我们看到的那么简单[EB/OL]. [2019-08-08]. http://m.cbea.com/xnyqc/201908/641305.html. The root cause of the frequent fire incidents of electric vehicles is not as simple as it meets the eye[EB/OL]. [2019-08-08]. http://m.cbea.com/xnyqc/201908/641305.html.
[13] KWAK Y. LG chem is faced with rising risks[EB/OL]. [2020-10-12]. https://www.donga.com/en/article/all/2020-1012/2207914/1.
[14] JINGLI S. Tesla model 3 catches fire and explodes in Shanghai[EB/OL]. [2021-01-21]. https://kr-asia.com/tesla-model-3-catches-fire-and-explodes-in-shanghai.
[15] MANDAL B K，PADHI A K，SHI Z，et al. Thermal runaway inhibitors for lithium battery electrolytes[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2006，161(2):1341-1345.
[16] KANG B，CEDER G. Battery materials for ultrafast charging and discharging[J]. Nature，2009，458(7235):190-193.
[17] KANG K，CEDER G. Factors that affect Li mobility in layered lithium transition metal oxides[J]. Physical Review B-Condensed Matter and Materials Physics，2006，74(9):1-7.
[18] JUNG R，METZGER M，MAGLIA F，et al. Oxygen release and its effect on the cycling stability of LiNi_x Mn_y Co_z O₂ (NMC) cathode materials for Li-Ion batteries[J]. Journal of The Electrochemical Society，2017，164(7):A1361-A1377.
[19] BAK S M，HU E，ZHOU Y，et al. Structural changes and thermal stability of charged LiNi[J]. Applied Materials and Interfaces，2014，6(24):22594-22601.
[20] SABBAH R，KIZILEL R，SELMAN J R，et al. Active (air-cooled) vs. passive (phase change material) thermal management of high power lithium-ion packs:Limitation of temperature rise and uniformity of temperature distribution[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2008，182(2):630-638.
[21] WANG T，TSENG K J，ZHAO J，et al. Thermal investigation of lithium-ion battery module with different cell arrangement structures and forced air-cooling strategies[J]. Applied Energy，2014，134:229-238.
[22] YATES M，AKRAMI M，JAVADI A A. Analysing the performance of liquid cooling designs in cylindrical lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Energy Storage，2021，33:100913.
[23] JIAQIANG E，HAN D，QIU A，et al. Orthogonal experimental design of liquid-cooling structure on the cooling effect of a liquid-cooled battery thermal management system[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2018，132:508-520.
[24] 柴家栋，杜恒，陈显达. 方形锂离子电池液冷管道结构优化设计[J]. 自动化应用，2020，3:46-49. CHAI Jiadong，DU Heng，CHEN Xianda. Optimization design of liquid cooling pipeline structure for square lithium lon battery[J]. Automation application，2020，3:46-49.
[25] KIANI M，OMIDDEZYANI S，HOUSHFAR E，et al. Lithium-ion battery thermal management system with Al2O3/AgO/CuO nanofluids and phase change material[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2020，180:115840.
[26] 李扬，陶于兵. 多孔复合相变材料电池热管理模型及结构优化[J]. 科学通报，2020，65(2-3):213-221. LI Yang，TAO Yubing. Battery thermal management model and structure optimization of porous composite phase change[J]. Chinese Science Bulletin，2020，65(2-3):213-221.
[27] HUANG Q，LI X，ZHANG G，et al. Thermal management of Lithium-ion battery pack through the application of flexible form-stable composite phase change materials[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2021，183(P1):116151.
[28] WHITTINGHAM M S. Lithium batteries and cathode materials[J]. Chemical Reviews，2004，104(10):4271-4301.
[29] NOH H J，YOUN S，YOON C S，et al. Comparison of the structural and electrochemical properties of layered Li[Ni_xCo_yMn_z]O₂ (x = 1/3，0.5，0.6，0.7，0.8 and 0.85) cathode material for lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2013，233:121-130.
[30] KONG L，LI Y，FENG W. Strategies to solve lithium battery thermal runaway:From mechanism to modification[J]. Electrochemical Energy Reviews，2021，4(4):633-679.
[31] CHEN S，GAO Z，SUN T. Safety challenges and safety measures of Li-ion batteries[J]. Energy Science and Engineering，2021，9(9):1647-1672.
[32] SONG L，ZHENG Y，XIAO Z，et al. Review on thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles[J]. Journal of Electronic Materials，2022，51(1):30-46.
[33] XU B，LEE J，KWON D，et al. Mitigation strategies for Li-ion battery thermal runaway :A review CID FR[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews，2021，150:111437.
[34] BANDARA T G T A，VIERA J C，GONZÁLEZ M. The next generation of fast charging methods for Lithium-ion batteries:The natural current-absorption methods[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews，2022，162:112338.
[35] BERNARDI D，PAWLIKOWSKI E，NEWMAN J. General energy balance for battery systems[J]. Electrochemical Society Extended Abstracts，1984，84-2:164-165.
[36] RAMADASS P，HARAN B，WHITE R，et al. Capacity fade of Sony 18650 cells cycled at elevated temperatures:Part I. Cycling performance[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2002，112(2):606-613.
[37] SATO N. Thermal behavior analysis of lithium-ion batteries for electric and hybrid vehicles[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2001，99(1-2):70-77.
[38] GOUTAM S，NIKOLIAN A，JAGUEMONT J，et al. Three-dimensional electro-thermal model of li-ion pouch cell:Analysis and comparison of cell design factors and model assumptions[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2017，126:796-808.
[39] MAHAMUD R，PARK C. Reciprocating air flow for Li-ion battery thermal management to improve temperature uniformity[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2011，196(13):5685-5696.
[40] LIANG L，ZHAO Y，DIAO Y，et al. Optimum cooling surface for prismatic lithium battery with metal shell based on anisotropic thermal conductivity and dimensions[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2021，506(100):230182.
[41] VISWANATHAN V V，CHOI D，WANG D，et al. Effect of entropy change of lithium intercalation in cathodes and anodes on Li-ion battery thermal management[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2010，195(11):3720-3729.
[42] WANG A，KADAM S，LI H，et al. Review on modeling of the anode solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) for lithium-ion batteries[J]. NPJ Computational Materials，2018，4(1):26.
[43] ABADA S，MARLAIR G，LECOCQ A，et al. Safety focused modeling of lithiumion batteries :A review[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2016，306:178-192.
[44] LIU Y，ZHU Y，CUI Y. Challenges and opportunities towards fast-charging battery materials[J]. Nature Energy，2019，4(7):540-550.
[45] ZHANG X，LI L，ZHANG W. Review of research about thermal runaway and management of Li-ion battery energy storage systems[C]. 2020 IEEE 9th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference，IPEMC 2020 ECCE Asia，2020(3202009):3216-3220.
[46] WANG Q，PING P，ZHAO X，et al. Thermal runaway caused fire and explosion of lithium ion battery[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2012，208:210-224.
[47] WANG Q，SUN J，YAO X，et al. Thermal behavior of lithiated graphite with electrolyte in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Journal of the Electrochemical Society，2006，153(2):A329.
[48] WANG Q，MAO B，STOLIAROV S I，et al. A review of lithium ion battery failure mechanisms and fire prevention strategies[J]. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science，2019，73:95-131.
[49] MAO J，TIEDEMANN W，NEWMAN J. Simulation of temperature rise in Li-ion cells at very high currents[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2014，271:444-454.
[50] FINEGAN D P，SCHEEL M，ROBINSON J B，et al. In-operando high-speed tomography of lithium-ion batteries during thermal runaway[J]. Nature Communications，2015，6:1-10.
[51] SPOTNITZ R，FRANKLIN J. Abuse behavior of high-power，lithium-ion cells[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2003，113(1):81-100.
[52] KONG L，LI C，JIANG J，et al. Li-ion battery fire hazards and safety strategies[J]. Energies，2018，11(9):1-11.
[53] ORENDORFF C J. The role of separators in lithium-ion cell safety[J]. Electrochemical Society Interface，2012，21(2):61-65.
[54] MAO B，CHEN H，CUI Z，et al. Failure mechanism of the lithium ion battery during nail penetration[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2018，122:1103-1115.
[55] YAMAKI J I，BABA Y，KATAYAMA N，et al. Thermal stability of electrolytes with Li_xCoO₂ cathode or lithiated carbon anode[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2003，119-121:789-793.
[56] JIANG J，DAHN J R. Effects of particle size and electrolyte salt on the thermal stability of Li_0.5CoO₂[J]. Electrochimica Acta，2004，49(16):2661-2666.
[57] YANG H，SHEN X D. Dynamic TGA-FTIR studies on the thermal stability of lithium/graphite with electrolyte in lithium-ion cell[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2007，167(2):515-519.
[58] HOFMANN A，UHLMANN N，ZIEBERT C，et al. Preventing Li-ion cell explosion during thermal runaway with reduced pressure[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2017，124:539-544.
[59] FENG X，LU L，OUYANG M，et al. A 3D thermal runaway propagation model for a large format lithium ion battery module[J]. Energy，2016，115:194-208.
[60] PING P，WANG Q S，HUANG P F，et al. Study of the fire behavior of high-energy lithium-ion batteries with full-scale burning test[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2015，285:80-89.
[61] 张亚军，王贺武，冯旭宁，等. 动力锂离子电池热失控燃烧特性研究进展[J]. 机械工程学报，2019，55(20):17-27. ZHANG Yajun，WANG Hewu，FENG Xuning，et al. Research progress on thermal runaway combustion characteristics of power lithiumion batteries[J]. Journal of Mechanical Engineering，2019，55(20):17-27.
[62] CHIU K C，LIN C H，YEH S F，et al. An electrochemical modeling of lithium-ion battery nail penetration[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2014，251:254-263.
[63] ZHANG C，SANTHANAGOPALAN S，SPRAGUE M A，et al. Coupled mechanical-electrical-thermal modeling for short-circuit prediction in a lithium-ion cell under mechanical abuse[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2015，290:102-113.
[64] YANG C，XIN S，MAI L，et al. Materials design for high-safety sodium-ion battery[J]. Advanced Energy Materials，2021，11(2):1-17.
[65] AL-ZAREER M，DINCER I，ROSEN M A. Performance assessment of a new hydrogen cooled prismatic battery pack arrangement for hydrogen hybrid electric vehicles[J]. Energy Conversion and Management，2018，173:303-319.
[66] PENG X，MA C，GARG A，et al. Thermal performance investigation of an air-cooled lithium-ion battery pack considering the inconsistency of battery cells[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2019，153:596-603.
[67] LI X，ZHAO J，YUAN J，et al. Simulation and analysis of air cooling configurations for a lithium-ion battery pack[J]. Journal of Energy Storage，2021，35:102270.
[68] SUN H，DIXON R. Development of cooling strategy for an air cooled lithium-ion battery pack[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2014，272:404-414.
[69] ZHUANG W，LIU Z，SU H，et al. An intelligent thermal management system for optimized lithium-ion battery pack[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2021，189:116767.
[70] CHEN K，WANG S，SONG M，et al. Configuration optimization of battery pack in parallel air-cooled battery thermal management system using an optimization strategy[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2017，123:177-186.
[71] ZHANG F，ZHU Y，GE Z. Thermal performance of reverse layered air-cooled cylindrical lithium battery pack integrated with staggered battery arrangement and spoiler[J]. Energy Technology，2022，2101006:1-17.
[72] WANG S，LI K，TIAN Y，et al. Improved thermal performance of a large laminated lithium-ion power battery by reciprocating air flow[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2019，152:445-454.
[73] SHARMA D K，PRABHAKAR A. A review on air cooled and air centric hybrid thermal management techniques for Li-ion battery packs in electric vehicles[J]. Journal of Energy Storage，2021，41:102885.
[74] AKINLABI A A H，SOLYALI D. Configuration，design，and optimization of air-cooled battery thermal management system for electric vehicles:A review[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews，2020，125:109815.
[75] CHOUDHARI V G，DHOBLE D A S，SATHE T M. A review on effect of heat generation and various thermal management systems for lithium ion battery used for electric vehicle[J]. Journal of Energy Storage，2020，32:101729.
[76] RAMEZANIZADEH M，ALHUYI NAZARI M，HOSSEIN AHMADI M，et al. A review on the approaches applied for cooling fuel cells[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2019，139:517-525.
[77] PARK S，JUNG D. Battery cell arrangement and heat transfer fluid effects on the parasitic power consumption and the cell temperature distribution in a hybrid electric vehicle[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2013，227:191-198.
[78] SAW L H，TAY A A O，ZHANG L W. Thermal management of lithium-ion battery pack with liquid cooling[J]. Annual IEEE Semiconductor Thermal Measurement and Management Symposium，2015，2015-April:298-302.
[79] XIA G，CAO L，BI G. A review on battery thermal management in electric vehicle application[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2017，367:90-105.
[80] KIM J，OH J，LEE H. Review on battery thermal management system for electric vehicles[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2019，149:192-212.
[81] SARKAR J，BHATTACHARYYA S. Application of graphene and graphene-based materials in clean energy-related devices Minghui[J]. Archives of Thermodynamics，2012，33(4):23-40.
[82] GUO Z，XU J，XU Z，et al. A lightweight multi-channel direct contact liquid cooling system and its optimization for lithium-ion batteries[J]. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification，2021，8(2):2334-2345.
[83] JITHIN K V，RAJESH P K. Numerical analysis of single-phase liquid immersion cooling for lithium-ion battery thermal management using different dielectric fluids[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2022，188:122608.
[84] YANG S，LING C，FAN Y，et al. A review of lithium-ion battery thermal management system strategies and the evaluate criteria[J]. International Journal of Electrochemical Science，2019，14(7):6077-6107.
[85] AKBARZADEH M，JAGUEMONT J，KALOGIANNIS T，et al. A novel liquid cooling plate concept for thermal management of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles[J]. Energy Conversion and Management，2021，231:113862.
[86] JIN L W，LEE P S，KONG X X，et al. Ultra-thin minichannel LCP for EV battery thermal management[J]. Applied Energy，2014，113:1786-1794.
[87] HU X，LIU W，LIN X，et al. A comparative study of control-oriented thermal models for cylindrical Li-Ion batteries[J]. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification，2019，5(4):1237-1253.
[88] LI M，WANG J，GUO Q，et al. Numerical analysis of cooling plates with different structures for electric vehicle battery thermal management systems[J]. Journal of Energy Engineering，2020，146(4):04020037.
[89] COBB J. Tesla vs. GM:Who has the best battery thermal management?[EB/OL].[2015-12-04]. https://www.gm-volt.com/threads/tesla-vs-gm-who-has-the-best-battery-thermal-management.337851/.
[90] RAO Z，QIAN Z，KUANG Y，et al. Thermal performance of liquid cooling based thermal management system for cylindrical lithium-ion battery module with variable contact surface[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2017，123:1514-1522.
[91] PANCHAL S，KHASOW R，DINCER I，et al. Thermal design and simulation of mini-channel cold plate for water cooled large sized prismatic lithium-ion battery[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2017，122:80-90.
[92] LIU J，LI H，LI W，et al. Thermal characteristics of power battery pack with liquid-based thermal management[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2020，164:114421.
[93] JARRETT A，KIM I Y. Design optimization of electric vehicle battery cooling plates for thermal performance[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2011，196(23):10359-10368.
[94] WANG C，ZHANG G，MENG L，et al. Liquid cooling based on thermal silica plate for battery thermal management system[J]. International Journal of Energy Research，2017，41(15):2468-2479.
[95] BASU S，HARIHARAN K S，KOLAKE S M，et al. Coupled electrochemical thermal modelling of a novel Li-ion battery pack thermal management system[J]. Applied Energy，2016，181:1-13.
[96] TANG Z，WANG S，LIU Z，et al. Numerical analysis of temperature uniformity of a liquid cooling battery module composed of heat-conducting blocks with gradient contact surface angles[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2020，178:115509.
[97] RAJ C R，SURESH S，SINGH V K，et al. Life cycle assessment of nanoalloy enhanced layered perovskite solid-solid phase change material till 10000 thermal cycles for energy storage applications[J]. Journal of Energy Storage，2021，35:102220.
[98] NOËL J A，KAHWAJI S，DESGROSSEILLIERS L，et al. Phase change materials[M/OL]. Dalhousie University，Halifax，Nova Scotia，Canada:Storing Energy，2016:249-272.
[99] HÉMERY C V，PRA F，ROBIN J F，et al. Experimental performances of a battery thermal management system using a phase change material[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2014，270:349-358.
[100] LI W Q，QU Z G，HE Y L，et al. Experimental study of a passive thermal management system for high-powered lithium ion batteries using porous metal foam saturated with phase change materials[J]. Journal of Power Sources，2014，255:9-15.
[101] CABEZA L F，FRAZZICA A，CHÀFER M，et al. Research trends and perspectives of thermal management of electric batteries:Bibliometric analysis[J]. Journal of Energy Storage，2020，32:101976.
[102] VERMA A，SHASHIDHARA S，RAKSHIT D. A comparative study on battery thermal management using phase change material (PCM)[J]. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress，2019，11:74-83.
[103] YUAN Y，ZHANG N，TAO W，et al. Fatty acids as phase change materials:A review[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews，2014，29:482-498.
[104] YAN J，LI K，CHEN H，et al. Experimental study on the application of phase change material in the dynamic cycling of battery pack system[J]. Energy Conversion and Management，2016，128:12-19.
[105] LING Z，CHEN J，FANG X，et al. Experimental and numerical investigation of the application of phase change materials in a simulative power batteries thermal management system[J]. Applied Energy，2014，121:104-113.
[106] ZOU D，LIU X，HE R，et al. Preparation of a novel composite phase change material (PCM) and its locally enhanced heat transfer for power battery module[J]. Energy Conversion and Management，2019，180:1196-1202.
[107] CAO J，LUO M，FANG X，et al. Liquid cooling with phase change materials for cylindrical Li-ion batteries:An experimental and numerical study[J]. Energy，2020，191:116565.
[108] ARSHAD A，JABBAL M，SHI L，et al. Thermophysical characteristics and enhancement analysis of carbon-additives phase change mono and hybrid materials for thermal management of electronic devices[J]. Journal of Energy Storage，2021，34:102231.
[109] KARIMI G，AZIZI M，BABAPOOR A. Experimental study of a cylindrical lithium ion battery thermal management using phase change material composites[J]. Journal of Energy Storage，2016，8:168-174.
[110] GROSU Y，ZHAO Y，GIACOMELLO A，et al. Hierarchical macro-nanoporous metals for leakage-freeygrosu@cicenergigune.com high-thermal conductivity shape-stabilized phase change materials[J]. Applied Energy，2020，269:115088.
[111] EL IDI M M，KARKRI M，KRAIEM M. Preparation and effective thermal conductivity of a Paraffin/Metal Foam composite[J]. Journal of Energy Storage，2021，33:102077.
[112] GALAZUTDINOVA Y，AL-HALLAJ S，GRÁGEDA M，et al. Development of the inorganic composite phase change materials for passive thermal management of Li-ion batteries:Material characterization[J]. International Journal of Energy Research，2020，44(3):2011-2022.
[113] LING Z，LUO M，SONG J，et al. A fast-heat battery system using the heat released from detonated supercooled phase change materials[J]. Energy，2021，219:119496.
[114] WU W，WU W，WANG S. Thermal management optimization of a prismatic battery with shape-stabilized phase change material[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2018，121:967-977.
[115] YANG N，WANG M，WANG J，et al. A model-based assessment of controllable phase change materials/liquid coupled cooling system for the power lithium-ion battery pack[J]. Energy Technology，2021，9(5):1-11.
[116] 汤勇，孙亚隆，唐恒，等. 柔性热管的研究现状与发展趋势[J]. 机械工程学报，2022，58(10):265-279. TANG Yong，SUN Yalong，TANG Heng，et al. Development status and perspective trend of flexible heat pipe[J]. Journal of Mechanical Engineering，2022，58(10):265-279.
[117] QIN P，SUN J，YANG X，et al. Battery thermal management system based on the forced-air convection:A review[J]. ETransportation，2021，7:100097.
[118] 汤勇，唐恒，万珍平，等. 超薄微热管的研究现状及发展趋势[J]. 机械工程学报，2017，53(20):131-144. TANG Y，TANG H，WAN Z，et al. Development status and perspective trend of ultra-thin micro heat pipe[J]. Journal of Mechanical Engineering，2017，53(20):131-144.
[119] JOUHARA H，CHAUHAN A，NANNOU T，et al. Heat pipe based systems -Advances and applications[J]. Energy，2017，128:729-754.
[120] ZOHURI B. Heat pipe design and technology:A practical approach[M]. Boca Raton:CRC Publishing Company，2011.
[121] WANG Q，JIANG B，XUE Q F，et al. Experimental investigation on EV battery cooling and heating by heat pipes[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2014，88:54-60.
[122] WAN C. Thermal performance of heat pipe array in battery thermal management[J]. Tehnicki Vjesnik，2020，27(2):423-428.
[123] HE L，TANG X，LUO Q，et al. Structure optimization of a heat pipe-cooling battery thermal management system based on fuzzy grey relational analysis[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2022，182:121924.
[124] BULUT M，KANDLIKAR S G，SOZBIR N. A review of vapor chambers[J]. Heat Transfer Engineering，2019，40(19):1551-1573.
[125] LIN W K，ZHANG W H，HUANG C，et al. Measurement of performance characterization of ultra-thin vapor chamber[C]//202036th Semiconductor Therma/Measurement. Modeling & Management Symposium. San Jose:IEEE，2020:97-104.
[126] GOU J，LIU W. Feasibility study on a novel 3D vapor chamber used for Li-ion battery thermal management system of electric vehicle[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2019，152:362-369.
[127] YE X，ZHAO Y，QUAN Z. Experimental study on heat dissipation for lithium-ion battery based on micro heat pipe array (MHPA)[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2018，130:74-82.
[128] WANG T，TAN S，GUO C，et al. Experimental study on U-shape flat thermosyphon for thermal management of power battery[J]. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology，2021，35(9):4193-4200.
[129] 黄尧. 基于高效相变传热元件的动力电池集成式热管理技术研究[D]. 广州:华南理工大学，2021. Huang Yao. Research on integrated thermal management technology of power battery based on high efficiency phase change heat transfer element[D]. Guangzhou:South China University of Technology，2021.
[130] MEI N，XU X，LI R. Heat dissipation analysis on the liquid cooling system coupled with a flat heat pipe of a lithium-ion battery[J]. ACS Omega，2020，5(28):17431-17441.
[131] KOITO Y. Numerical analyses on heat transfer characteristics of ultra-thin heat pipes:Fundamental studies with a three-dimensional thermal-fluid model[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2019，148:430-437.
[132] AOKI H，SHIOYA N，IKEDA M et al. Development of ultra thin plate-type heat pipe with less than 1 mm thickness[C]//201026th Annual IEEE Semiconductor Thermal Measurement and Management Symposium，Annual IEEE Semiconductor Thermal Measurement and Management Symposium，Santa Clara，CA，USA:IEEE，2010:217-223.
[133] ZHOU W，LI Y，CHEN Z，et al. A novel ultra-thin flattened heat pipe with biporous spiral woven mesh wick for cooling electronic devices[J]. Energy Conversion and Management，2019，180:769-783.
[134] GUANGWEN H，WANGYU L，YUANQIANG L，et al. Fabrication and capillary performance of a novel composite wick for ultra-thin heat pipes[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2021，176:121467.
[135] ZHOU W，LI Y，CHEN Z，et al. Ultra-thin flattened heat pipe with a novel band-shape spiral woven mesh wick for cooling smartphones[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2020，146:118792.
[136] ZHONG G，TANG Y，DING X，et al. Experimental study of a large-area ultra-thin flat heat pipe for solar collectors under different cooling conditions[J]. Renewable Energy，2020，149:1032-1039.
[137] LEE D，BYON C. Fabrication and characterization of pure-metal-based submillimeter-thick flexible flat heat pipe with innovative wick structures[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2018，122:306-314.
[138] SHI B，ZHANG H，ZHANG P，et al. Performance test of an ultra-thin flat heat pipe with a 0.2 mm thick vapor chamber[J]. Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering，2019，29(11):115019.
[139] OGATA S，SUKEGAWA E，KIMURA T. Performance evaluation of ultra-thin polymer pulsating heat pipes[J]. Thermomechanical Phenomena in Electronic Systems-Proceedings of the Intersociety Conference，2014:519-526.
[140] LEWIS R，LIEW L A，XU S，et al. Microfabricated ultra-thin all-polymer thermal ground planes[J]. Science Bulletin，2015，60(7):701-706.
[141] CHEN Z，LI Y，ZHOU W，et al. Design，fabrication and thermal performance of a novel ultra-thin vapour chamber for cooling electronic devices[J]. Energy Conversion and Management，2019，187:221-231.
[142] HUANG G，LIU W，LUO Y，et al. A novel ultra-thin vapor chamber for heat dissipation in ultra-thin portable electronic devices[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2020，167:114726.
[143] LI J，LÜ L，ZHOU G，et al. Mechanism of a microscale flat plate heat pipe with extremely high nominal thermal conductivity for cooling high-end smartphone chips[J]. Energy Conversion and Management，2019，201:112202.
[144] CHEN G. Design，fabrication and performance of ultrathin vapor chamber with gas-liquid coplanar structure[D]. Guangzhou:South China University of Technology，2021.
[145] HUANG G，LIU W，LUO Y，et al. Research and optimization design of limited internal cavity of ultra-thin vapor chamber[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2020，148:119101.
[146] LI D，HUANG Z，ZHAO J，et al. Analysis of heat transfer performance and vapor-liquid meniscus shape of ultra-thin vapor chamber with supporting columns[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2021，193:117001.
[147] ZHANG S，CHEN J，SUN Y，et al. Experimental study on the thermal performance of a novel ultra-thin aluminum flat heat pipe[J]. Renewable Energy，2019，135:1133-1143.
[148] REAY D A，KEW P A，MCGLEN R J. C. Heat pipes:theory，design and applications[M]. Amsterdam:Elsevier Ltd，2013.
[149] ZENG J，CHEN C，TANG Y，et al. Effect of powder size on capillary and two-phase heat transfer performance for porous interconnected microchannel nets as enhanced wick for two-phase heat transfer devices[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2016，104:668-677.
[150] ZHANG J，LIAN L X，LIU Y，et al. The heat transfer capability prediction of heat pipes based on capillary rise test of wicks[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2021，164:120536.
[151] JIANG X，TANG H，LIU Y，et al. The heat transfer capacity of multi-layer wick heat pipe tested in anti-gravity orientations[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2022，200:117611.
[152] CHEN G，FAN D，ZHANG S，et al. Wicking capability evaluation of multilayer composite micromesh wicks for ultrathin two-phase heat transfer devices[J]. Renewable Energy，2021，163:921-929.
[153] WONG S C，DENG M S，LIU M C. Characterization of composite mesh-groove wick and its performance in a visualizable flat-plate heat pipe[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2022，184:122259.
[154] TANG Y，TANG H，LI J，et al. Experimental investigation of capillary force in a novel sintered copper mesh wick for ultra-thin heat pipes[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2017，115:1020-1030.
[155] TANG H，WENG C，TANG Y，et al. Effect of inclination angle on the thermal performance of an ultrathin heat pipe with multi-scale wick structure[J]. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer，2020，118:104908.
[156] LI Q，LAN Z，CHUN J，et al. Fabrication and capillary characterization of multi-scale micro-grooved wicks with sintered copper powder[J]. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer，2021，121:105123.
[157] TANG H，TANG Y，YUAN W，et al. Fabrication and capillary characterization of axially micro-grooved wicks for aluminium flat-plate heat pipes[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2018，129:907-915.
[158] ZHANG S，LIN L，CHEN G，et al. Experimental study on the capillary performance of aluminum micro-grooved wicks with reentrant cavity array[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2019，139:917-927.
[159] MOONEY J P，EGAN V，QUINLAN R，et al. Effect of multiple heat sources and bend angle on the performance of sintered wicked heat pipes[C]//InterSociety Conference on Thermal and Thermomechanical Phenomena in Electronic Systems，Orlando，FL，New York:IEEE，2020:124-133.
[160] DAI X，TANG Y，LIU T，et al. Experimental investigation on the thermal characteristics of ultra-thin flattened heat pipes with bending angles[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering，2020，172:115150.
[161] MAHDAVI M，FAGHRI A，SHABGARD H. Thermal performance of U-shaped and L-shaped heat pipes[J]. Numerical Heat Transfer; Part A:Applications，2021，80(8):411-435.
[162] OSHMAN C，LI Q，LIEW L A，et al. Flat flexible polymer heat pipes[J]. Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering，2012，23(1):015001.
[163] HSIEH S S，YANG Y R. Design，fabrication and performance tests for a polymer-based flexible flat heat pipe[J]. Energy Conversion and Management，2013，70:10-19.
[164] LIU C，LI Q，FAN D. Fabrication and performance evaluation of flexible flat heat pipes for the thermal control of deployable structure[J]. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer，2019，144:118661.
[165] 周文杰. 压扁型超薄热管制造方法及传热性能研究[D]. 广州:华南理工大学，2019. ZHOU Wenjie. Heat pipe transfer performance of ultra-thin flattened study on manufacturing method and heat[D]. Guangzhou:South China University of Technology，2019.